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Sweeteners

Sweeteners come from various sources. They have been sought throughout history for their pleasing taste and many uses. Just stop and think of what you have eaten today.

This morning you may have sweetened your tea with honey and put maple syrup on your pancakes. At lunch, you may have eaten a snack food made with corn syrup — a form of sugar — and, perhaps, you finished off dinner with a cake made with the most commonly used and best known sweetener of all, granulated sugar.

The science of sweetness, however, goes beyond the source of the foodstuff for the sweetener. At a molecular level, approximately 100 chemicals are sweet. They all are referred to as sugars. Common ones you may have heard of include the following:


Sucrose — Table sugar is the crystallized form of sucrose. Sucrose is referred to as a simple sugar. It is naturally occurring in all plants that depend on sunlight to produce energy. Sugar cane and sugar beets are among the most abundant producers of sucrose in the plant kingdom.

Glucose — A simple sugar that plays many key roles in the body, glucose is a simple sugar found in fruits, honey, cereal, flour, and nuts.

Fructose — The sweetest of all sugars is found in abundance in honey and fruit.

Lactose — Another simple sugar, lactose occurs only in milk. It is often added to other foods during processing to improve taste.

Maltose — The result of a chemical processing that uses starch and malt, maltose has numerous commercial food uses. It is often used in beer, bread, and baby food, among other things.

Pectin — A complex sugar, pectin is found in apples, citrus fruits, and some vegetables. It is a form of fiber.

Nutrition

All sugars are carbohydrates and play a key role in providing the body with energy. The calorie content depends on the type of sweetener used. For example, table sugar has about 16 calories per teaspoon, and honey has about 21 calories per teaspoon.

Generally, sweeteners often are referred to as having “empty calories.” They contain few or no vitamins, minerals, or other nutrients. And, because they are appealing, it can be easy to eat too much. This excess could make it difficult to maintain a healthy weight.

Heavy use of sweeteners also may increase the risk of tooth decay, which is why it is important to brush after eating a sweet food, particularly one that is sticky, such as caramel. For these reasons, it is best to minimize the amount of sweeteners in your diet.

Selection and Storage

These factors depend on the type of sweetener. Check the following sections, which provide more information on common types of sweeteners, for specifics.

Sugar

sugar

Sugar was once considered as valuable as gold because of its scarcity. Its use spread throughout the Western world after explorers, then armies, conquered parts of ancient Arabia. In early times, it was sold and traded in blocks, which were then ground into powder.

Although sugar is a carbohydrate that occurs naturally in every fruit and vegetable, it is found in the greatest quantities as sucrose in sugar cane, which is grown in the tropics, and sugar beets, which can be cultivated in colder climates. Juice extracted from the crushed cane or sliced
beets is then processed to make sugar.

Typically, the juice is boiled, and then chemicals are added to the solution to purify it. The resulting syrup is known as molasses. Continued processing separates crystals from the molasses and other by-products. The crystals are then dried and packaged as sugar.

The most common types of sugars found in supermarkets are as follows:

• Granulated white sugar — Often referred to as table sugar, this is the most commonly used type of sugar. There are different grades of granulated white sugar, and the size of the sugar crystal determines how it is used. Regular, extra-fine, or fine sugar is the sugar found most commonly in the sugar bowl and called for in most cookbook recipes. Superfine sugar or ultrafine sugar has the smallest crystal size and is often used in cakes and meringues and to sweeten fruits or iced drinks. Superfine sugar dissolves the most easily in water.
• Brown sugar — Brown sugar is sold in dark and light varieties. It is simply white sugar crystals coated in a molasses syrup to add a natural mellow flavor and color. Dark brown sugar has more color and a stronger molasses flavor. Its fuller flavor is called for in recipes for gingerbread and baked beans. Lighter types are usually used in baking. Neither type of brown sugar is considered raw sugar, although they do look similar to it.
• Confectioners’ sugar — Also known as powdered sugar, this is granulated sugar that has been ground into a powder. A small amount of cornstarch can be added to prevent clumping. Confectioners’ sugar typically is used to make icing, in whipping cream, and as a topping for desserts.
• Decorating or coarse sugar — Also called sugar crystals, decorating sugar has granules about four times larger than those of regular granulated sugar. It undergoes a special processing method to make it resistant to color change and breakdown at high temperatures. This makes it useful for making fondants or liqueurs.
• Sanding sugar — Also called colored sugar, sanding sugar is used for decorating and is characterized by large crystals. This is desirable in decorating because it gives the food a sparkling appearance.
• Flavored sugar — This is simply granulated sugar that has been combined or scented with various ingredients such as cinnamon or vanilla.
• Fruit sugar — Slightly finer than “regular” sugar, fruit sugar is used in dry mixes such as gelatin desserts, pudding mixes, and drink mixes. The more uniform crystals prevent separation or settling of smaller crystals to the bottom of the box.

In addition to sweetening items, sugar plays an important role in making food. It is a critical ingredient in bread, in which it provides food for yeast and thus helps bread to rise. It also adds to the flavor and crust color of baked goods and helps extend shelf life.

Granulated white sugar

In large amounts, sugar inhibits the growth of yeast and molds in jams and jellies. Sugar syrups protect frozen and canned foods from browning and withering.

In ice cream, beverages, baked goods, and other products, sugar adds bulk, texture, and body. It is also used in many condiments, such as ketchup and salad dressing, where it blends flavors, reduces acidity, and helps create a smooth texture.

Sugar has a long shelf life. Kept tightly wrapped and in a cool, dark place, it will keep for months or even years.

Preparation Tips: Sugar adds flavor and calories but little else. Therefore, it is best for most of us to minimize its role in our diet. Make a little go a long way. To do so:

• Add spices, such as cinnamon or nutmeg, to foods to jazz up flavor while reducing sweeteners used in them.
• Add fruit or yogurt to foods such as cereal, instead of a sweetener.
• Avoid sweetened soft drinks, and minimize fruit juices with added sugar. Better yet, drink water.
• Check labels for sugar or any one of the chemical names for it: glucose, sucrose, lactose, or fructose, to name just a few. Also, watch for corn syrup or malt syrup, two more widely used sweeteners in food manufacturing.

Serving Suggestions: Manufacturers can reduce the fat in many foods, but it is hard to do without sugar. Sugar is a key component of baked goods and desserts and is used to enhance the flavor of everything from sweet-and-sour stir-fry to ham. The amount of sugar used in a recipe often can be reduced by up to half without compromising the flavor. However, this is not always the case, so a bit of trial and error is required.

Honey

Honey

In ancient times, this thick, sweet, golden liquid was thought of as a healing agent, a gift from the gods, and a symbol of wealth. Today, this sweetener is still revered, although not as highly, for being a natural source of sweet flavor.

Honey is made by bees. The basic ingredient is nectar gathered from flowers. Enzymes in the bee’s saliva convert the nectar into honey. Essentially, this is a simple matter of chemistry, in which the sugar (sucrose) in nectar is converted into fructose and glucose.

As the phrase “busy as a bee” suggests, bees work hard to make honey. The bee must make up to 100,000 round trips from hive to flower and back just to make a quart of honey.

Honey is divided into three basic categories:

• Liquid honey, which is extracted from the comb
• Chunk-style honey, a liquid honey with pieces of the honeycomb
• Comb honey, a square or round piece of the honeycomb, with the honey inside

Within these three categories are hundreds of different types of honey. Honey’s color ranges from light to dark. The flavor ranges from mild to strong and depends on the type of flower from which the nectar was taken. In general, the darker the honey, the stronger the flavor.

One tablespoon of honey has about 64 calories. Although sugar has about 48 calories per tablespoon, honey does have some advantages over sugar. Its sweetening power is stronger. And honey, unlike other sweeteners, does contain trace amounts of vitamins and minerals.

If kept in a sealed container and a cool dark place, honey can be kept for a long time. Cooler temperatures, such as in a refrigerator, may cause honey to thicken. Warming it up, however, restores honey’s appearance. Its taste is not altered. However, very warm temperatures can change honey’s flavor.

Preparation Tips: Most honey sold in stores is pasteurized, filtered, and blended. Some cooks buy honey directly from an apiary because they believe that these processes alter or dull honey’s delicate flavor.

Honey also can be used as a substitute for sugar (about 1/2 cup honey for 1 cup of sugar) in many recipes. Keep in mind, however, that honey may cause food to brown more quickly. In addition, you will need to reduce the liquid in the recipe.

Serving Suggestions: Honey adds moisture to cakes, breads, and other confections. It is also an excellent topping for most baked goods. One other common use is as a glaze for meats such as ham.

Syrups

syrups

Sugar also comes in syrups — thick, viscous, sweet liquids that have various tastes and uses. The most common types include the following:

• Cane syrup — Thick and extremely sweet, cane syrup is made from sugar cane. It is a common ingredient in Caribbean and Creole recipes.
• Grain syrups — Sweet syrups can be made from several grains: barley, wheat, corn, or rice. They are not as sweet as sugar but are commonly used in food manufacturing because they do not readily form crystals. Corn syrup is perhaps the most widely used grain syrup. It is made by processing corn starch and is available in light and dark forms. Malt syrup, made from evaporated corn mash and sprouted barley, is another common grain syrup. It has a strong flavor and is used in bread making.
• Golden syrup — Popular in England, golden syrup is similar in consistency to corn syrup and has a golden color. It is made from sugar cane juice and has a toasted flavor. It is also known as light treacle.
• Maple syrup — The best known of all syrups, maple syrup is made by boiling the sap of certain species of maple trees (Acer saccharum) found mainly in Quebec, New York, and Vermont. This clear, subtly flavored syrup is sweeter than sugar and has a distinctive flavor.
• Molasses — Molasses, a dark viscous syrup, is a by-product of the sugar-making process and is generally used for flavoring foods or as a glaze. It is poured over foods as a condiment in some regions of the United States. Light molasses is produced during the first stages of the sugar-extraction process. Dark molasses is made during the second stage and is referred to as unsulfured molasses. Blackstrap molasses, made during the selesai stage of sugar production, is darkly colored and has an intense flavor.
• Black treacle — Black treacle is a thick, black, and sticky syrup. It is very similar to molasses and is a by-product of the sugar-production process. Black treacle is sweeter than molasses. A lighter-colored and lighter-flavored form is also available. Both are more common in England.
• Palm syrup — This dark, thick, and intensely flavored syrup is made from palms. It is an ingredient in some Asian recipes and usually is sold only at specialty markets.

Preparation Tips: Most grain syrups are used commercially. In contrast, maple syrup is typically used at home. Pure maple syrup is found in supermarkets.

However, pancake syrups commonly contain either a small portion of maple syrup or maple flavoring that is then mixed with a grain syrup. Many types of syrups are used to make candy. Keep in mind that syrups high in sugar have a higher boiling point than water.

Serving Suggestions: Maple syrup is typically used as a topping for waffles and pancakes. Numerous types of syrups can be used as glazes for meats (ham, in particular, and also poultry or fish) or on top of vegetables, such as carrots. Molasses also makes an excellent glaze.

Sugar syrups make an excellent glaze for pound cakes and bundt cakes.

Chocolate

chocolate

If there is one flavoring that everyone seems to love, it’s chocolate. Rich and sweet, with a distinctive taste that cannot be duplicated, chocolate is the universal favorite when it comes to flavor. In fact, ancient cultures even thought it was a gift from the gods, one with medicinal properties. It is perhaps the most popular sweet flavoring worldwide.

Chocolate is made from the beans of the cacao tree, which grows in the warm, humid weather of the equatorial regions. Like coffee beans, the beans of the cacao tree must be dried, chopped, and roasted before use.

The processing of the beans results in a dark brown liquid called chocolate liquor. This fluid — which is 55 percent fat, 17 percent carbohydrate, and 11 percent protein — is used to make virtually all types of chocolate.

Different types of chocolate contain varying amounts of cocoa butter — a vegetable fat derived from the cacao bean — and solids from the cacao bean.

Chocolate types include the following:

• Unsweetened — Sometimes referred to as baker’s chocolate, this dark, rich, and bitter chocolate does not have any sugar added to it. It is usually added to recipes in which sugar is an ingredient.
• Bittersweet — This dark, rich chocolate is comprised mostly of chocolate liquor, meaning it is rich in cacao solids, but it may have some milk solids and other flavorings added to it.
• Semisweet — A favorite of makers of chocolate chip cookies, semisweet chocolate contains more milk solids and other flavorings than bittersweet chocolate.
• Milk — The sweetest of all chocolates, milk chocolate has a light-brown color and a mild chocolate flavor.
• White — This ivory-colored chocolate contains no cacao bean solids, but it does contain cocoa butter, which gives it a rich, creamy mouth-feel. It differs from white almond bark or candy coating, which uses vegetable fat as a base instead of cocoa butter.
• Imitation chocolate — Typically used in baking chips, imitation chocolate replaces some or all of the cocoa fat with other vegetable fats. It is high in fat (mostly saturated fat) and does contain caffeine.

Cocoa is another common type of chocolate. It is a powdered form of chocolate made from chocolate liquor. However, all cocoa butter has been removed from it.

A tablespoon of unsweetened cocoa powder contains about 15 calories and just under 1 gram of fat.

Cocoa typically is not sweetened and is added to recipes in which sugar is used. There are two main types of cocoa: natural and “Dutch-process.” Natural cocoa is light in color and has a strong chocolate flavor. In contrast, Dutch-process has a milder taste but is darker in color.

Chocolate’s nutritional value varies. One ounce of unsweetened chocolate has 145 calories, 16 grams of fat, and 9 grams of saturated fat. In comparison, an ounce of semisweet chocolate has 135 calories, 9 grams of fat, and 5 grams of saturated fat. Chocolate also is a source of protein and contains trace amounts of vitamins and some minerals, such as potassium.

Chocolate should be stored in a cool, dark place and can be kept for several months. Dark chocolate can be stored for up to a year. Varying temperatures will cause lighter, whitish areas to appear on chocolate — something that does not affect taste and is resolved when the chocolate is melted. Chocolate also can be frozen, but it must be wrapped tightly to prevent moisture from damaging the chocolate when it is thawed.

Preparation Tips: Cocoa can be used as a substitute for chocolate in recipes. However, when this substitution is made, fat needs to be added to the cocoa to ensure that the selesai product will be moist. Each square of unsweetened chocolate can be replaced with 3 table-spoons of cocoa and 1 tablespoon of cooking oil.

Melting chocolate is difficult because it burns easily. For that reason, it is best to use a double boiler to melt chocolate. Avoid splashing any water into the melting chocolate because doing so can cause the chocolate to become hard and thus unusable. Chopping the chocolate into small bits before melting it helps achieve the smooth, even consistency that many recipes require.

Always look at the ingredient list of the chocolate you buy to ensure that you are not getting a substitute.

Serving Suggestions: Chocolate is the classic dessert ingredient, providing the flavoring power for cakes, tortes, frostings, mousses, creams, and other sweets too numerous to count.

Chocolate’s high fat content and high calories mean it should be used in moderation. Use chocolate as an accent to a healthier food — such as a dip for strawberries — rather than as the main ingredient. Reduced-calorie hot cocoa mixes are an excellent way to feed a chocolate craving without the fat and calories. Or, simply save chocolate for special occasions.

Top 10 natural sweeteners

Bites and Stings Poisoning

Bites and stings poisoning or hypersensitivity response (allergic reaction) to insect and reptile venoms.

Though numerous insects sting and spiders and snakes bite, most are not poisonous (harmful beyond local discomfort at the site of the sting or bite). Rapid first resonse efforts can often reduce the severity of the resulting injury from poisonous stings and bites.

Hymenoptera stings

The most common stings come from wasps, hornets, yellow jackets, honey bees, and fire ants, collectively known as the Hymenoptera order.


For the two million Americans who are allergic to the venom of these insects, the sting is far more significant than irritation or discomfort. Severe hypersensitivity response can cause swelling of the throat that blocks the airway; anaphylactic shock is a life-threatening circumstance.

First response for Hymenoptera stings:

1. Gently scrape the stinger out of the wound with the edge of an object such as a credit card. Do not grasp the stinger with tweezers or fingernails as this squeezes the venom sack and forces more venom into the wound.
2. Apply ice until the area is numb.
3. Make a paste of baking soda and water and liberally spread it over the area of the sting (Alternately, apply a small amount of hydrocortisone cream or diphenhydramine cream.)
4. Seek further evaluation and treatment from a health-care provider when pain persists or worsens, or when the person stung has a hypersensitivity response (allergic reaction).

Poisonous spider bites and scorpion stings

There are only two types of poisonous spiders in North America, the widows (of which the black widow is the most notorious species) and the brown recluse. There is one species of poisonous scorpion, Centruroides sculpturatus, found in the
southwestern United States (particularly Arizona) and northern Mexico.

The venom of a widow spider is a neurotoxin that produces pain and swelling at the site of the bite and systemic effects that may include generalized discomfort or pain, muscle cramp, and muscle spasm. It may also elevate blood Pressure (hypertension).

scorpion

Many people do not notice the bite of the brown recluse spider for up to a week, when the toxin begins to cause tissue necrosis (death) at the site of the bite. The sting of the C. sculpturatus scorpion is also a neurotoxin; pain is immediate and later systemic response is common. Though unpleasant, these bites and stings are seldom fatal.

First response for poisonous scorpion stings and spider bites:

1. Apply ice to the bite.
2. Minimize movement of the bitten area; splint if possible.
3. Seek immediate medical care at a hospital emergency department. Antivenin is available for widow spider and C. sculpturatus scorpion bites.

Poisonous snake bites

There are four types of poisonous snakes in North America, the bites of which are all capable of causing death. Antivenin is available for each type. Bites from poisonous snakes require urgent medical treatment at a hospital emergency department.

First response for snake bite:

1. Loosely splint or otherwise immobilize the area of the bite, and keep it lower than the heart.
2. Keep the bitten person calm and still.
3. If it will be longer than 30 minutes before the bitten person can get to a hospital, wrap a bandage (or improvise with a scarf or other item of clothing) firmly but not tightly three to four inches above the bite, between the bite and the heart.

The tightness of the wrap should be such that the responder’s finger can fit under it. After placing such a bandage, do not remove it for any reason. Doing so will release a surge of venom into the person’s blood circulation.

Stings from stingrays, jellyfish, and sea urchins

jellyfish

Numerous species common in the oceans in the coastal United States can deliver a significant sting. Stingrays and sea urchins sting with spines coated in venom.

The spines may break off under the skin, continuing to release venom. They also present very high risk for bacterial infection. Heat inactivates the venom and vinegar dissolves the spines.

First response for stingray and sea urchin stings:

1. Soak the area of the sting in water as hot as the person stung can tolerate for at least 30 minutes.
2. After the hot water soak, place gauze pads soaked in vinegar over the sting area.
3. Repeat these measures until symptoms improve or the stung person reaches a hospital for further treatment.

Jellyfish and related creatures such as sea anemones and Portuguese man-o-war have clusters of long tentacles covered with stinging cells.

First response for these stings:

1. Flush the area of the sting with seawater.
2. Place gauze pads soaked in vinegar over the sting area for at least 30 minutes.
3. Use gloved hands or tweezers to remove tentacles.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until all tentacles are gone and pain subsides.
5. Seek treatment at a hospital emergency department.

Cheese

Despite the high fat content of most forms of cheese, cheese remains an American favorite. Dairy cases are filled with different varieties of cheeses, and classic foods such as pizza, cheeseburgers, and tacos, all of which use some form of cheese, guarantee generations of cheese lovers.

The first cheese was said to have developed by accident, when milk was allowed to ferment. Whether the first cheese was formed from Mongolian yak’s milk, the African camel’s milk, or the Middle Eastern ewe’s milk is unknown and still debated.

But the results, after thousands of years, remain the same: the earliest coagulating curds of milk carried in a shepherd’s pouch have become a tempting treat, with many different types from which to choose.


Cheese can be made from various milks. Milk from cows is typically used in the United States, but milk from sheep, goats, camels, and other animals is used worldwide. In fact, some of the world’s finest gourmet cheeses are made from sheep’s milk.

No matter what type of milk is used, the process is essentially the same. The first step is to curdle the milk, essentially causing proteins in the milk to clump. Bacterial cultures or certain enzymes are used to curdle the milk. Next, the liquid surrounding the curds, which is called the whey, is drained.

Then the curds are pressed into shapes. Salt may be added at this point. The freshly made cheese is then allowed to age, a process that develops its flavor. Other ingredients also may be added at this point. In general, 11 pounds of milk are needed to make 1 pound of cheese. Knowing that, it is easy to see why cheese is dense in both calories and fat.

Like any dairy product, cheese is perishable. A general rule is that the harder the cheese, the longer it keeps. Categories of cheese are determined by the method used to make it, the type of milk used, the texture, or even the appearance of the rind. This classification system groups cheeses with common characteristics.

Fresh Cheeses

Fresh Cheeses

These cheeses were once made on the farm from surplus cream and quickly served. Today these cheeses are made with pasteurized milk, but they still have a short shelf life and must be consumed quickly. Fresh cheeses are not allowed to ripen or ferment very long, so they have a high moisture content, a mild flavor, and a smooth, creamy texture. They generally keep for 1 week after purchase or the “use by” date.

Common types of fresh cheeses include the following:

Cottage cheese
Usually thought of as a “diet” food, cottage cheese is a healthful food choice when it is made from skim or low-fat milk. Cottage cheese is only a few steps from milk. It is essentially the separation of milk into curds and whey. The curds are partially drained before cottage cheese is packaged and sold.

Cream cheese
The mild white spread often used for bagels, cream cheese is a better choice than butter, but it still has a lot of fat. Up to 90 percent of the calories in cream cheese are from fat. One tablespoon has about 50 calories and about 5 grams of fat. Even best choice.

Farmer’s cheese
Often used in baking, farmer’s cheese is essentially cottage cheese that has had most of the liquid pressed out of it. It is usually sold formed as a loaf and is relatively low in fat.

Mozzarella
The pizza topping of choice, mozzarella is a soft, bland cheese. Unlike other fresh cheeses, mozzarella has undergone a heating and kneading process. Whole-fat, skim, low-moisture, and fat-free versions of mozzarella cheese are available. Fresh mozzarella, sold in specialty and ethnic stores, is usually made from whole milk and, therefore, is higher in fat than other types.

Ricotta
A common ingredient in Italian dishes, ricotta is similar to cottage cheese but has a finer texture. Ricotta was once made from whey left over from making other cheeses. Today, it is made from whey and milk.

Semisoft Cheeses

Semisoft cheeses

Semisoft cheeses are firm on the outside yet soft and moist on the inside. Because they are aged for just a few weeks, they have a soft, moist texture and mild flavor.

Semisoft cheeses are used widely in cooking because they melt smoothly and easily. They are also easy to slice and so are excellent for hors d’oeuvres or for more ordinary uses, such as sandwich toppings.

Because these cheeses are soft, they are often coated with wax or another material to keep them intact. Some types of semisoft cheeses are aged. Others are “washed” in brine, which causes them to develop a rind on the outside. These processes also intensify the cheese’s flavor and, in some instances, sodium content.

Some common types of semisoft cheeses include:

Brick
The shape of this cheese is the origin of its name. When aged, it has an assertive flavor, like cheddar cheese. When it is young, it is mild.

Edam
A Dutch specialty, this cheese has a mild, buttery taste. It is often sold in balls or blocks coated with red wax. It is also available smoked.

Gouda
Another Dutch cheese, Gouda is sold in wedges and wheels usually covered in red wax. Like other semisoft cheeses, it has a mild flavor that becomes sharper as it ages. Gouda can be purchased as a smoked cheese.

Jarlsberg
A Norwegian specialty, this cheese is often compared to Swiss cheese. It is softer, however, and milder. Jarlsberg is also typically sold in wedges.

Limburger
Famed for its characteristic aroma, Limburger is one of the strongest-flavored semisoft cheeses. Limburger is easily sliced and can add a different twist to ordinary foods, such as sandwiches.

Provolone
The taste of this cheese depends on its age and how it is processed. Young provolone has a mild taste and ivory color. With age, its flavor becomes stronger, its texture drier, and its color darker. The cheese is sometimes smoked or has had a smoke flavoring added to it. Provolone is often sold in loaves.

Semisoft cheeses are generally higher in calories and fat than soft cheeses. For example, 1 1/2 ounces of Edam or provolone cheese has about 150 calories and about 12 grams of fat. In contrast, the same amount of cottage cheese (made with 2 percent milk) contains about 40 calories and 1 gram of fat. However, semisoft cheeses generally contain less fat and calories than hard cheeses because less milk is used to make semisoft cheeses than hard cheeses.

Soft, White-Rind Cheeses

Soft, white-rind cheeses are descendents of natural-rind cheeses, in which gray, green, and even red molds are allowed to grow on the surface of the cheese as it ripens. Most North American cheese consumers are put off by the colored mold growth, so the colorful natural-rind cheeses are nearly impossible to obtain outside of France.

Soft, white-rind cheeses are readily available, however. Instead of allowing natural mold growth, these cheeses are sprayed with white mold spores that seal the outside while allowing the interior of the cheese to maintain a soft, butter-like consistency at maturity. These cheeses garner their characteristic flavor from bacteria that grow on the outside and move inward. The result is a rich, creamy texture and full flavor. These cheeses often have fewer calories than hard cheeses.

Soft, white-rind cheeses include:

Brie
A cheese originating in northern France, Brie is often sold in wedges and has a tangy, buttery flavor.

Camembert
Also originating in northern France, Camembert has a velvety texture and a soft, light-yellow interior. Camembert is often wrapped in foil and sold in wooden boxes.

Blue or Blue-Veined Cheeses

Blue-Veined Cheeses

Blue-veined cheeses are created by the introduction of a blue mold into the milk before it thickens. The blue color, however, would not appear as the characteristic blue-green veins in cheeses without exposure to air. Therefore, the cheese is pierced with steel rods to let air circulate.

Most blue cheeses are made in the style of classic European blue cheeses. They can be firm or creamy and any color from chalk-white to golden-yellow. The flavor of these cheeses grows stronger with age. Although these cheeses are high in fat, only a small amount is typically used because of their strong flavor. Blue cheeses keep for 1 to 4 weeks after purchase.

Classic or blue-veined cheeses include:

Gorgonzola
Sold in wheels, Gorgonzola is an Italian specialty. The interior of the cheese is white with veins that are usually more green than blue.

Roquefort
Named for the area in France where the cheese is said to have originated, Roquefort has a crumbly texture and a sharp flavor. It is made from sheep’s milk.

Hard and Firm Cheeses

Hard and Firm Cheeses

This category is what most people think of when it comes to cheese. So-named because they become hardened with age, hard and firm cheeses include the well-known cheddar and Parmesan varieties.

They have a strong flavor and are widely used in cooking. They are also richer in calcium than softer cheeses because more milk is used in their production. However, this also means they are higher in fat and calories and so should be used in moderation in a healthful diet.

Hard and firm cheeses are divided into these categories:

Hard grating cheeses
Hard grating cheeses include Parmesan and Romano. As the name suggests, they are often grated before use, but they can be served as chunks. Both cheeses originated in Italy. Parmesan cheese takes its name from the Parma region, where this cheese may be aged up to 4 years. Romano cheese probably originated in Rome. Italian versions are made from sheep’s milk; American versions, in contrast, are made from cow’s milk.

Both types are common toppings for Italian favorites such as spaghetti. In general, these cheeses have a tangy flavor and pleasing aroma. During production, they are heated to set the curd and reduce moisture. Aging enhances their flavor and results in their texture becoming more crumbly.

Cheddar-type cheeses
Cheddar cheese originated in the English village of Cheddar and has since been adopted by cheese lovers all over the world. Cheddar’s distinct bite can range from mild to sharp, and the cheese is often seasoned with wine or spices. Cheddar cheese’s characteristic color is orange — the result of adding a natural vegetable coloring called annatto during production. Other cheddar-type cheeses include Cantal, Cheshire, Gloucester, Wensleydale, and Leicester.

Colby
A blander, more moist cheese than cheddar, Colby was developed in Wisconsin a century ago.

Gruyère-type cheeses
Carbon dioxide gases trapped inside the cheese while it is ripening create the characteristic “eyes” of this type of cheese. The cheese usually is a straw-yellow color and has a mild to rich, full flavor.

Monterey Jack
A mild, light-colored cheese, Monterey Jack also may be spiced up with bits of jalapeno peppers, pepperoni, or herbs and spices.

Swiss cheese
Known for the holes in it, Swiss cheese is a golden-yellow cheese and has a tangy flavor. The holes in it are caused by pockets of gas that develop when the cheese is made.

Processed Cheeses

Processed cheese is the most common type of cheese eaten in the United States, where it was originally developed. In processed cheese, one or more types of cheese are heated (which stops the aging process) and melted. An emulsifier is then added as a binding agent.

Additional dairy ingredients may be added, such as cream, whole or skim milk, buttermilk, or dried milk. Depending on the process, other thickeners or emulsifiers may be added for firmness and smoothness. A common type of processed cheese is American cheese, which is usually derived from cheddar cheese.

Processed cheeses have a mild flavor and melt easily and smoothly. They have a number of uses, from spreads to pasta toppings to dips. However, there are nutritional trade-offs. Processed cheeses are often higher in sodium than traditional cheeses and are somewhat lower in protein and other nutrients.

Infographic flavors of cheese (click to enlarge)

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) closely regulates the composition of processed cheese. Label terms that indicate you are using a processed cheese include pasteurized process cheese, cheese food, and cheese spread.

Preparation Tips

To get the most flavor from your cheese, it should be allowed to warm to room temperature. Therefore, take cheese out of the refrigerator an hour in advance of when you plan to serve it. Keep the wrapper intact so the cheese does not dry out.

The opposite is true if you plan to grate cheese. It grates better when it is cold, and 10 minutes in the freezer speeds the process.

When melting cheese, use a gradual, medium heat, because it can turn rubbery when heated at a high temperature.

Serving Suggestions

Because most cheese is high in fat — about 40 percent of which is saturated — it should accompany other foods rather than be the centerpiece of a meal. Also, most cheeses are high in sodium because of the salt used for curing and flavoring.

That said, the flavor and texture of cheese mean that large quantities are not needed to enjoy it. Cheese is excellent as a garnish for soups and salads. Or, crumble bits of real blue cheese on your salad instead of pouring on fat-filled blue cheese dressing.

The result is a more authentic blue cheese taste with less fat and fewer calories. Top pasta with a small serving of grated cheese, such as Romano or Parmesan, but lean heavily on a vegetable-based sauce. Use a single slice of cheese atop a veggie-filled sandwich, or trade the cheese for a lean slice of turkey.

When making nachos, sprinkle baked tortilla pieces lightly with sharp cheddar cheese and then top the chips with plenty of healthier options: vegetables, beans, and salsa. If you have a craving for pizza, make your own. Take-out pizzas, especially if ordered with extra cheese, can supply the entire day’s fat supply with one piece.

Wine and cheese pairings

Yarrow

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) is an aromatic member of the Asteraceae (Compositae) family. This perennial European native with lovely, fern-like foliage is also named millefoil, or thousand leaves, because of its finely-divided leaves.

There are many species and subspecies of yarrow, including a similar native American variety known as A. Millefolium var. lanulosa. Yarrow is naturalized through-out North America and can be found growing wild in meadows, fields, and along roadsides.

Introduced to North America by early colonists, yarrow soon became a valued remedy used by many tribes of indigenous people. American Shakers gathered yarrow for use in numerous medicinal preparations. The plant was listed in the official U.S. Pharmacopoeia from the mid- to late nineteenth century.


Yarrow’s hardy rhizome, or underground stem, develops from underground runners as the extensive root system spreads. The lacy, finely-divided leaves are multi-pinnate, and grow alternately, clasping at the base along the simple, erect and angular stem. The feather-like leaves may reach 6 in (15.2 cm) in length.

They mound near the ground in early growth; then the slightly hairy stems reach upwards to 3 ft (0.91 m) in height during flowering. The tiny blossoms may be rose or lilac colored, or a creamy white; they flower from June until October. Yarrow blossoms grow in flat-topped composite clusters at the top of the stems.

Human relationships with this healing plant reach back to ancient times. The fossilized pollen of yarrow has been found in Neanderthal burial caves from as far back as 60,000 years.

Yarrow has long been associated with magic and divination, and is considered by some folk herbalists as a sacred plant with special spiritual powers to offer protection. Yarrow stalks are traditionally used to cast the I Ching, the Chinese book of prophecy. The herb was also believed to be useful in love charms and in conjuring.

One folk name for yarrow is devil’s nettle. Other names include bloodwort, carpenter’s weed, sanguinary, staunchweed, dog daisy, old man’s pepper, field hops, nosebleed, knight’s milfoil, soldier’s woundwort, and military herb. Yarrow accompanied soldiers into battle and was relied upon for its hemostatic action to treat wounds.

This use may have been the source of yarrow’s generic name, taken from the legend of Achilles. The Greek pahlawan is said to have used yarrow in the Trojan War to staunch the blood flowing from the wounds of fallen comrades. Yarrow was used in battle-field first aid as recently as World War I (1914–1918).

General use

Scientists have identified over one hundred active chemical compounds in yarrow, including the intensely blue-colored azulene derivatives found in the essential oil of yarrow and at least two species of chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile (L.) and Matricaria recutita).

Other chemical constituents in yarrow include lactones, flavonoids, tannins, coumarins, saponins, sterols, sugars, a bitter glyco-alkaloid, and amino acids. The aerial parts of yarrow, particularly the wild white-flowered variety, are most often used in medicinal remedies.

External uses

Yarrow is well known for its wound healing capabilities, particularly in staunching the flow of blood. The herb is considered a vulnerary and hemostatic with antiseptic and antibacterial properties. The astringent action of the leaf, when inserted into a nostril, may stop a nosebleed.

An infusion of the leaf, stems, and flowers will speed the healing of rashes, hemorrhoids, and skin ulcers. Dried and powdered yarrow sprinkled on cuts and abrasions may also facilitate healing. Native Americans used yarrow in poultice form to treat skin problems. Infusions of yarrow have been used as a hair rinse in attempts to prevent baldness.

Internal uses

In folk medicine, freshly gathered yarrow root mashed in whiskey was used as a primitive anesthetic. Yarrow has also been used to stop internal bleeding, and as a bitter digestive tonic. Its emmenagogic action promotes the flow of bile. Yarrow tea taken warm acts as a diaphoretic, or medication given to induce sweating.

It is particularly beneficial in the treatment of fever, colds, and influenza, as well as the early stages of measles and chickenpox. The essential oil, extracted by steam distillation of the flowers, is dark blue in color and has anti-inflammatory, anti-allergenic, and antispasmodic properties.

Fresh yarrow leaf chewed slowly is said to relieve toothache. The herb has also been used to induce nosebleed in an attempt to relieve migraine headache. Yarrow appears to be beneficial in reducing high blood pressure. Flavonoids in the herb act to dilate the peripheral arteries and help to clear blood clots.

Preparations

Yarrow diagram

Yarrow should be harvested while the herb is in flower, on a dry day after the morning dew has evaporated. The leaves, stems, and blossoms are all used medicinally. The leaves should be cut from the stems and spread out on a paper-lined tray to dry in a bright, airy room, out of direct sunlight.

Blossoms may be left on the stems and hung in small bunches upside-down in a very warm room. Dried flowers should be stored separately, and dry stems cut into small segments before storage in an airtight, dark glass container, clearly labeled to indicate the contents and the date and place of harvest.

Leaf infusion: Place 2 oz of fresh yarrow leaf, less if dried, in a warmed glass container. Bring 2.5 cups of fresh, nonchlorinated water to the boiling point and add it to the yarrow. Cover. Steep the tea for 10 to 15 minutes, then strain. Drink warm or cold throughout the day, up to three cups per day. The prepared tea can be stored for about two days in the refrigerator.

Tincture: Combine 4 oz of fresh yarrow leaf and stalks cut fine (or 2 oz dry powdered herb) with 1 pint of brandy, gin, or vodka in a glass container. The alcohol should be enough to cover the plant parts and have a 50/50 ratio of alcohol to water.

Cover and store the mixture away from the light for about two weeks, shaking several times each day. Strain and store in a tightly capped, clearly labeled dark glass bottle. A standard dose is 10 to 15 drops of the tincture in water, up to three times a day.

Precautions

Rose colored yarrow

Yarrow may have a cumulative medicinal effect on the system. Patients should avoid the frequent use of yarrow in large doses for long periods of time. Yarrow is a uterine stimulant; pregnant or lactating women should therefore not use the herb internally.

Side effects

People with allergies to ragweed, another member of the Asteraceae family of plants, may also want to avoid taking yarrow internally. In some cases yarrow may cause skin rashes or photosensitivity after ingestion.

Interactions

No interactions between yarrow and standard pharmaceutical preparations have been reported.

Wound

A wound occurs when the integrity of any tissue is compromised, for example, when skin breaks, muscle tears, burns, or bone fractures. A wound may be caused by an act, such as a gunshot, fall, or surgical procedure; by an infectious disease; or by an underlying condition.

Description

Types and causes of wounds are wide ranging, and health care professionals have several different ways of classifying them. They may be chronic, such as the skin ulcers caused by diabetes mellitus, or acute, such as a gunshot wound or animal bite.

Wounds may also be referred to as open, in which the skin has been compromised and underlying tissues are exposed, or closed, in which the skin has not been compromised, but syok to underlying structures has occurred, such as a bruised rib or cerebral contusion.

Emergency personnel and first-aid workers generally place acute wounds in one of eight categories:

• Abrasions. Also called scrapes, they occur when the skin is rubbed away by friction against another rough surface (e.g. rope burns and skinned knees).
• Avulsions. These occur when an entire structure or part of it is forcibly pulled away, such as the loss of a permanent tooth or an ear lobe. Explosions, gunshots, and animal bites may cause avulsions.
• Contusions. Also called bruises, these result from forceful syok that injures an internal structure without breaking the skin. Blows to the chest, abdomen, or head with a blunt instrument (e.g. a football or a fist) can cause contusions.
• Crush wounds occur when a heavy object falls onto a person, splitting the skin and shattering or tearing underlying structures.
• Cuts are slicing wounds made with a sharp instrument, leaving even edges. They may be as minimal as a paper cut or as significant as a surgical incision.
• Lacerations. Also called tears, these are separating wounds that produce ragged edges. They are produced by a tremendous force against the body, either from an internal source as in childbirth, or from an external source like a punch.
• Missile wounds. Also called velocity wounds, they are caused by an object entering the body at a high speed, typically a bullet.
• Punctures are deep, narrow wounds produced by sharp objects such as nails, knives, and broken glass.

Causes and symptoms

Acute wounds have a wide range of causes. Often, they are the unintentional results of motor vehicle accidents, falls, mishandling of sharp objects, or sports-related injury. Wounds may also be the intentional result of violence involving assault with weapons, including fists, knives, or guns.

The general symptoms of a wound are localized pain and bleeding. Specific symptoms include:

• An abrasion usually appears as lines of scraped skin with tiny spots of bleeding.
• An avulsion has heavy, rapid bleeding and a noticeable absence of tissue.
• A contusion may appear as a bruise beneath the skin or may appear only on imaging tests; an internal wound may also generate symptoms such as weakness, perspiration, and pain.
• A crush wound may have irregular margins like a laceration; however, the wound will be deeper and syok to muscle and bone may be apparent.
• A cut may have little or profuse bleeding depending on its depth and length; its even edges readily line up.
• A laceration too may have little or profuse bleeding; the tissue damage is generally greater and the wound’s ragged edges do not readily line up.
• A missile entry wound may be accompanied by an exit wound, and bleeding may be profuse, depending on the nature of the injury.
• A puncture wound will be greater than its length, therefore there is usually little bleeding around the outside of the wound and more bleeding inside, causing discoloration.

Diagnosis

A diagnosis is made by visual examination and may be confirmed by a report of the causal events. Medical personnel will also assess the extent of the wound and what effect it has had on the patient’s well-being (e.g. profound blood loss, damage to the nervous system or skeletal system).

In cases of severe injury, or when a physician suspects possible internal injury, tests might be made to determine the extent of a wound. In late 2001, a new ultrasound (imaging inside the body via sound waves) technique was introduced that might help doctors diagnose internal bleeding, a serious complication of some injuries. The technique could help prevent invasive surgery for diagnosis.

Treatment

Treatment of wounds involves stopping any bleeding, then cleaning and dressing the wound to prevent infection. Additional medical attention may be required if the effects of the wound have compromised the body’s ability to function effectively.

Stopping the bleeding

Most bleeding may be stopped by direct pressure. Direct pressure is applied by placing a clean cloth or dressing over the wound and pressing the palm of the hand over the entire area. This limits local bleeding without disrupting a significant portion of the circulation. The cloth absorbs blood and allows clot formation; the clot should not be disturbed, so if blood soaks through the cloth, another cloth should be placed directly on top rather than replacing the original cloth.

If the wound is on an arm or leg that does not appear to have a broken bone, the wound should be elevated to a height above the person’s heart while direct pressure is applied. Elevating the wound allows gravity to slow down the flow of blood to that area.

If severe bleeding cannot be stopped by direct pressure or with elevation, the next step is to apply pressure to the major artery supplying blood to the area of the wound.

In the arm, pressure would be applied to the brachial artery by pressing the inside of the upper arm against the bone. In the leg, pressure would be applied to the femoral artery by pressing on the inner crease of the groin against the pelvic bone.

If the bleeding from an arm or leg is so extreme as to be life-threatening and if it cannot be stopped by any other means, a tourniquet—a device used to check or prevent bleeding or blood flow—may be required. However, in the process of limiting further blood loss, the tourniquet also drastically deprives the limb tissues of oxygen. As a result, the patient may live but the limb may die.

Dressing the wound

Once the bleeding has been stopped, cleaning and dressing the wound is important for preventing infection. Although the flowing blood flushes debris from the wound, running water should also be used to rinse away dirt. Embedded particles such as wood slivers and glass splinters, if not too deep, may be removed with a needle or pair of tweezers that has been sterilized in rubbing alcohol or in the heat of a flame.

Once the wound has been cleared of foreign material and washed, it should be gently blotted dry, with care not to disturb the blood clot. An antibiotic ointment may be applied. The wound should then be covered with a clean dressing and bandaged to hold the dressing in place.

Homeopathic remedies

In addition to the conventional treatments described above, there are alternative therapies that may help support the injured person. Homeopathy can be very effective in acute wound situations. Ledum (Ledum palustre) is recommended for puncture wounds (taken internally). Calendula (Calendula officinalis) is the primary homeopathic remedy for wounds.

Other effective treatments

A naturally occurring antiseptic is tea tree oil (Melaleuca spp.), which can be mixed with water for cleaning wounds. Aloe (Aloe barbadensis) can be applied topically to soothe skin during healing.

When wounds affect the nerves, especially in the arms and legs, St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) can be helpful when taken internally or applied topically. Also, an important Chinese herb preparation called Yunnan Bai Yao, which includes the main herbal ingredient san chi, is used very effectively to stop bleeding, and promote healing for all sorts of wounds.

Other herbal remedies include Hypericum for nerve pain, and arnica for soft tissue damage. Acupuncture can help support the healing process by restoring the energy flow in the meridians that have been affected by the wound. In some cases, vitamin E taken orally or applied topically can speed healing and lessen scarring.

Allopathic treatment

A person who has become impaled on a fixed object, such as a fence post or a stake in the ground, should only be moved by emergency medical personnel. Foreign objects embedded in the eye should only be removed by a doctor. Larger penetrating objects, such as a fishhook or an arrow, should only be removed by a doctor to prevent further damage as they exit.

Additional medical attention is necessary in several instances. Wounds that penetrate the muscle beneath the skin should be cleaned and treated by a doctor. Such a wound may require stitches to keep it closed during healing.

Some deep wounds, which do not extend to the underlying muscle may only require butterfly bandages to keep them closed during healing. Wounds to the face and neck, even small ones, should always be examined and treated by a doctor to preserve sensory function and minimize scarring.

Deep wounds to the hands and wrists should be examined for nerve and tendon damage. Puncture wounds may require a tetanus shot to prevent serious infection. Animal bites should always be examined and the possibility of rabies infection determined.

Infection

Wounds that develop signs of infection should also be brought to a doctor’s attention. Signs of infection are swelling, redness, tenderness, throbbing pain, localized warmth, fever, swollen lymph glands, the presence of pus either in the wound or draining from it, and red streaks spreading away from the wound.

Emergency treatment

With even as little as one quart of blood lost, a person may lose consciousness and go into traumatic shock. Because this is life-threatening, emergency medical assistance should be called immediately.

If the person stops breathing, artificial respiration (also called mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or rescue breathing) should be administered. In the absence of a pulse, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) must be performed. Once the person is breathing unassisted, the bleeding may be attended to.

In cases of severe blood loss, medical treatment may include the intravenous replacement of body fluids. This may be infusion with saline or plasma, or a transfusion of whole blood.

Expected results

Without the complication of infection, most wounds heal well with time. Depending on the depth and size of the wound, it may or may not leave a visible scar.

Prevention

Most actions that result in wounds are preventable. Injuries from motor vehicle accidents may be reduced by wearing seat belts and placing children in size-appropriate car seats in the back seat.

Sharp, jagged, or pointed objects or machinery parts should be used according to the manufacturer’s instructions and only for their intended purpose, as well as educating children on the proper way to hold and handle them, or keeping them out from their reach.

Firearms and explosives should be used only by adults with explicit training; they should also be kept locked and away from children. Persons engaging in sports, games, and recreational activities should wear all proper protective equipment and follow safety rules.